Lists Test

Lists for paras chapter one

An Introduction to the Human Body

Figure 1.1 Blood Pressure

INTRODUCTION

Though you may _________ a course in _________ and _________ strictly as a _________ for your field of study, the knowledge you gain in this course will _________ you well in many aspects of your life. An _________ of _________ and _________ is not only _________ to any career in the _________ professions, but it can also _________ your own health. _________ with the human body can help you make healthful _________ and _________ you to take _________ action when signs of illness _________. Your knowledge in this field will help you understand _________ about _________, medications, _________ devices, and procedures and help you understand _________ or _________ diseases. At some point, everyone will have a problem with some _________ of their body and your knowledge can help you to be a better _________, spouse, _________, friend, _________, or _________.

This chapter begins with an _________ of _________ and _________ and a preview of the body regions and functions. It then _________ the _________ of life and how the body works to maintain _________ conditions. It introduces a set of standard _________ for body structures and for _________ and _________ in the body that will _________ as a foundation for more _________ information _________ later in the _________. It _________ with _________ of _________ imaging _________ to see inside the living body.

1.1 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

Human _________ is the scientific study of the body’s _________. Some of these _________ are very small and can only be _________ and _________ with the assistance of a _________. Other _________ structures can readily be seen, _________, measured, and weighed. The word _________ comes from a _________ root that means _________ cut _________ Human _________ was first studied by observing the exterior of the body and _________ the _________ of _________ and other injuries. Later, physicians were allowed to dissect _________ of the dead to augment their knowledge. When a body is _________, its _________ are cut apart in order to observe their physical _________ and their relationships to one another. Dissection is still _________ in _________ schools, _________ courses, and in _________ labs. In order to observe _________ in living people, however, a number of _________ techniques have been _________. These _________ allow _________ to _________ structures inside the living body such as a cancerous _________ or a fractured _________.

Like most scientific _________, anatomy has areas of specialization. _________ anatomy is the study of the larger _________ of the body, those visible without the _________ of _________ (Figure 1.2 a). Macro- _________ “large,” thus, gross _________ is also referred to as _________ anatomy. In contrast, _________- means _________ and _________ anatomy is the study of _________ that can be _________ only with the use of a microscope or other _________ devices (Figure 1.2 b). _________ anatomy _________ cytology, the study of cells and histology, the study of tissues. As the _________ of _________ has _________, anatomists have been able to observe smaller and smaller _________ of the body, from slices of large _________ like the heart, to the _________ structures of large _________ in the body.

FIGURE 1.2 Gross and Microscopic Anatomy

Anatomists take two general approaches to the study of the body’s _________: regional and systemic. _________ anatomy is the study of the interrelationships of all of the _________ in a specific body region, such as the abdomen. _________ regional _________ helps us appreciate the interrelationships of body _________, such as how muscles, nerves, blood vessels, and other _________ work together to _________ a particular body region. In _________, systemic _________ is the study of the _________ that make up a discrete body system—that is, a group of _________ that work together to perform a unique body function. For example, a systemic _________ study of the _________ system would consider all of the skeletal muscles of the body.

Whereas _________ is about structure, _________ is about function. Human physiology is the _________ study of the _________ and _________ of the structures of the body and the ways in which they work together to support the _________ of life. Much of the study of _________ centers on the _________ tendency toward homeostasis. _________ is the state of steady _________ conditions _________ by living things. The study of physiology _________ includes _________, both with the _________ eye and with _________, as well as _________ and _________. However, current advances in physiology usually depend on carefully _________ laboratory _________ that _________ the _________ of the many _________ and _________ compounds that make up the human body.

Like _________, physiologists _________ specialize in a particular branch of physiology. For example, _________ is the study of the _________, spinal _________, and _________ and how these work together to perform _________ as _________ and _________ as _________, movement, and thinking. _________ may work from the organ level (exploring, for example, what different _________ of the brain do) to the molecular level (such as exploring how an _________ signal _________ along _________).

Form is closely _________ to function in all living _________. For example, the thin flap of your _________ can _________ down to clear away dust _________ and almost instantaneously _________ back up to _________ you to see again. At the microscopic level, the _________ and function of the nerves and muscles that serve the eyelid _________ for its quick action and _________. At a smaller level of _________, the function of these nerves and muscles _________ relies on the _________ of _________ molecules and ions. Even the _________ structure of certain _________ is _________ to their function.

Your study of _________ and _________ will make more sense if you continually _________ the form of the structures you are _________ to their function. In fact, it can be somewhat _________ to _________ to study anatomy without an _________ of the physiology that a body structure _________. Imagine, for example, _________ to _________ the _________ arrangement of the _________ of the human hand if you had no conception of the function of the hand. _________, your _________ of how the human hand _________ tools—from _________ to _________ phones—helps you appreciate the unique _________ of the thumb in opposition to the four fingers, _________ your hand a structure that _________ you to pinch and grasp _________ and type text _________.

1.2 Structural Organization of the Human Body

Before you begin to study the different _________ and _________ of the human body, it is helpful to consider its basic _________; that is, how its smallest _________ are _________ into _________ structures. It is _________ to consider the _________ of the body in terms of fundamental _________ of _________ that increase in _________: subatomic _________, atoms, _________, organelles, _________, tissues, _________, organ _________, organisms and biosphere (Figure 1.3).

FIGURE 1.3 Levels of Structural Organization of the Human Body

The Levels of Organization

To study the _________ level of organization, _________ consider the simplest _________ blocks of matter: _________ particles, _________ and _________. All matter in the universe is composed of one or more _________ pure _________ called _________, familiar _________ of which are _________, oxygen, _________, nitrogen, _________, and iron. The _________ unit of any of these _________ substances (_________) is an atom. _________ are made up of subatomic _________ such as the _________, electron and neutron. Two or more atoms combine to form a _________, such as the water molecules, _________, and _________ found in living _________. Molecules are the _________ building _________ of all body _________.

A _________ is the smallest _________ functioning unit of a living _________. Even _________, which are extremely small, independently-living _________, have a cellular structure. Each _________ is a single _________. All living structures of human _________ contain _________, and almost all _________ of human physiology are performed in cells or are _________ by _________.

A human cell _________ consists of flexible _________ that _________ cytoplasm, a water-based _________ fluid together with a variety of tiny _________ units called organelles. In humans, as in all organisms, _________ perform all functions of life. A tissue is a group of many similar _________ (though _________ composed of a few related _________) that work together to perform a specific function. An _________ is an anatomically _________ structure of the body composed of two or more _________ types. Each organ _________ one or more _________ physiological _________. An _________ system is a group of _________ that work together to perform major functions or meet _________ needs of the body.

This book covers _________ distinct _________ systems in the human body (Figure 1.4 and Figure 1.5). _________ organs to organ _________ can be imprecise since organs that “belong” to one system can also have _________ integral to another system. In fact, most _________ contribute to more than one system.

In this book and throughout your studies of biological _________, you will often read descriptions _________ to _________ and _________ among _________ structures, _________, and _________ related to a _________ biological _________. People often use the words "_________" and "_________" to describe two different concepts: our sense of gender identity, and our biological _________ as determined by our chromosomes, _________, organs, and other physical characteristics. For some people, gender identity is different from _________ sex or their _________ assigned at birth. Throughout this book, "female" and "male" _________ to _________ only, and the _________ anatomy and physiology of XX and XY _________ is _________.

FIGURE 1.4 Organ Systems of the Human Body

FIGURE 1.5 Organ Systems of the Human Body (continued)

The _________ level is the _________ level of organization. An organism is a living being that has a cellular structure and that can _________ perform all physiologic _________ necessary for life. In multicellular _________, including _________, all _________, tissues, _________, and _________ systems of the body work together to _________ the life and _________ of the organism.

1.3 Functions of Human Life

The different organ _________ each have different _________ and therefore unique _________ to _________ in _________. These many functions can be _________ in _________ of a few that we might consider _________ of human life: _________, metabolism, _________, movement, _________, and _________.

Organization

A human body _________ of _________ of _________ organized in a way that _________ distinct _________ compartments. These compartments keep body _________ separated from external _________ threats and keep the cells _________ and _________. They also separate _________ body _________ from the countless _________ that grow on body surfaces, _________ the _________ of certain passageways that connect to the _________ surface of the body. The _________ tract, for example, is home to more _________ cells than the total of all human _________ in the body, yet these _________ are outside the body and cannot be allowed to _________ freely inside the body.

Cells, for example, have a _________ membrane (also referred to as the plasma _________) that _________ the _________ environment—the _________ and _________ from the extracellular environment. Blood _________ keep blood inside a closed _________ system, and nerves and muscles are wrapped in connective _________ sheaths that separate them from _________ structures. In the _________ and _________, a variety of _________ membranes keep major _________ such as the _________, heart, and kidneys separate from _________.

The _________ largest _________ system is the _________ system, which includes the skin and its _________ structures, such as hair and _________. The surface tissue of skin is a _________ that _________ internal _________ and _________ from _________ harmful _________ and other toxins.

Metabolism

The first law of thermodynamics _________ that energy can neither be _________ nor _________ can only change form. Your basic function as an _________ is to consume (_________) energy and molecules in the _________ you eat, convert some of it into _________ for movement, sustain your body _________, and build and _________ your body structures. There are two types of reactions that accomplish this: anabolism and catabolism.

• _________ is the process _________ smaller, _________ molecules are combined into larger, more complex _________. Your body can _________, by _________ energy, the complex _________ it _________ by _________ small _________ derived from the _________ you eat

• _________ is the process by which _________ more _________ substances are broken down into _________ simpler _________. Catabolism _________ energy. The complex _________ found in foods are broken down so the body can use their parts to assemble the structures and substances _________ for life.

Taken together, these two processes are called _________. Metabolism is the _________ of all anabolic and catabolic _________ that take place in the body (Figure 1.6). Both _________ and _________ occur _________ and _________ to keep you alive.

FIGURE 1.6 Metabolism

Every _________ in your body _________ use of a _________ compound, _________ triphosphate (_________), to store and _________ energy. The cell _________ energy in the _________ (anabolism) of ATP, then moves the ATP _________ to the location where energy is needed to fuel _________ activities. Then the _________ is broken down (_________) and a controlled amount of energy is _________, which is used by the _________ to _________ a particular job.

Responsiveness

Responsiveness is the ability of an organism to adjust to changes in its _________ and _________ environments. An example of responsiveness to external _________ could include moving toward sources of food and water and away from perceived _________. Changes in an _________ internal environment, such as increased body temperature, can cause the responses of sweating and the _________ of blood vessels in the skin in order to _________ body temperature, as shown by the runners in Figure 1.7.

Movement

Human movement includes not only _________ at the joints of the body, but also the motion of individual organs and even individual cells. As you read these words, red and white blood cells are moving throughout your body, muscle _________ are _________ and _________ to _________ your _________ and to focus your vision, and glands are secreting _________ to _________ body _________. Your body is _________ the action of entire muscle _________ to _________ you to move air into and out of your _________, to push blood throughout your body, and to propel the food you have _________ through your digestive _________. Consciously, of course, you contract your skeletal muscles to move the _________ of your skeleton to get from one place to another (as the runners are doing in Figure 1.7), and to carry out all of the activities of your daily life.

FIGURE 1.7 Marathon Runners

Development, growth and reproduction

Development is all of the _________ the body goes through in life. Development _________ the process of _________, in which unspecialized _________ become _________ in structure and function to _________ certain _________ in the body. _________ also _________ the _________ of _________ and _________, both of which _________ cell _________.

Growth is the increase in body size. _________, like all multicellular _________, grow by increasing the number of existing _________, increasing the amount of non-cellular material around _________ (such as mineral _________ in _________), and, within very narrow limits, _________ the size of _________ cells.

Reproduction is the _________ of a new _________ from _________ organisms. In humans, _________ is _________ out by the _________ and _________ reproductive _________. Because death will come to all complex _________, without _________, the line of _________ would end.

1.4 Requirements for Human Life

Humans have been _________ to life on Earth for at least the past _________ years. Earth and its atmosphere have provided us with air to _________, water to drink, and food to eat, but these are not the only _________ for _________. Although you may _________ think about it, you also cannot live outside of a certain _________ of temperature and pressure that the surface of our planet and its atmosphere _________. The next sections _________ these four requirements of life.

Oxygen

Atmospheric air is only about _________ percent oxygen, but that oxygen is a key component of the _________ reactions that keep the body alive, including the reactions that produce _________. Brain _________ are especially sensitive to lack of oxygen because of their requirement for a _________ production of ATP. _________ damage is likely within five _________ without oxygen, and death is _________ within ten minutes.

Nutrients

A _________ is a substance in foods and beverages that is _________ to human survival. The three basic classes of nutrients are water, the energy-yielding and body-building _________, and the micronutrients (_________ and _________).

The most critical _________ is water. Depending on the _________ temperature and our state of _________, we may be able to _________ for only a few days without water. The body’s _________ chemicals are dissolved and transported in water, and the _________ reactions of life take place in water. _________, water is the _________ component of cells, blood, and the fluid between cells, and water _________ up about 70 _________ of an adult’s body mass. Water also _________ regulate our internal temperature and _________, protects, and lubricates _________ and many other body structures.

The _________ nutrients are primarily _________ and _________, while _________ mainly supply the _________ acids that are the building _________ of the body itself. You _________ these in plant and animal _________ and _________, and the digestive system breaks them down into molecules small enough to be _________. The _________ products of carbohydrates and lipids can then be used in the _________ processes that convert them to _________. Although you might feel as if you are starving after missing a single _________, you can survive without consuming the energy-yielding _________ for at least several weeks.

Water and the _________ nutrients are also _________ to as macronutrients because the body needs them in large amounts. In contrast, _________ are _________ and _________. These _________ and _________ participate in many _________ chemical _________ and _________, such as nerve _________, and some, such as calcium, also contribute to the _________ structure. Your body can store some of the micronutrients in its _________, and draw on those reserves if you _________ to _________ them in your _________ for a few _________ or _________. Some _________ micronutrients, such as _________ C and most of the _________ vitamins, are water-soluble and cannot be stored, so you need to _________ them every day or two.

Narrow Range of Temperature

You have probably seen news _________ about _________ who _________ of heat stroke, or hikers who died of exposure to cold. Such deaths occur because the chemical _________ upon which the body depends can only take place within a narrow range of body temperature, from just below to just above 37°C (_________). When body temperature _________ well above or _________ well below normal, certain proteins (_________) that _________ chemical _________ lose their normal structure and their ability to function and the _________ reactions of metabolism cannot proceed.

That said, the body can _________ effectively to short-term _________ to heat (Figure 1.8) or cold. One of the _________ responses to heat is, of course, sweating. As sweat _________ from skin, it _________ some _________ energy from the body, cooling it. Adequate water (from the extracellular _________ in the body) is necessary to produce _________, so _________ fluid _________ is _________ to balance that _________ during the sweat _________. Not _________, the _________ response is much less effective in a _________ environment because the air is already saturated with water. Thus, the _________ on the skin’s surface is not able to evaporate, and internal body temperature can get _________ high.

FIGURE 1.8 Extreme Heat

The body can also respond _________ to _________ exposure to cold. One response to cold is shivering, which is _________ muscle movement that _________ heat. Another response is increased _________ of _________ energy to generate heat. When that energy _________ is _________, however, and the _________ temperature _________ to drop significantly, red blood _________ will lose their ability to give up oxygen, denying the brain of this _________ component of ATP _________. This _________ of oxygen can cause confusion, _________, and _________ loss of consciousness and death. The body _________ to cold by _________ blood _________ to the extremities, the hands and feet, in order to prevent blood from _________ there and so that the _________ core can stay warm. Even when core body temperature _________ stable, however, tissues _________ to _________ cold, especially the _________ and _________, can develop frostbite when blood _________ to the extremities has been much reduced. This form of tissue _________ can be permanent and lead to gangrene, _________ amputation of the _________ region.

Everyday Connection

Controlled Hypothermia

As you have learned, the body continuously _________ in _________ physiological _________ to _________ a _________ temperature. In some _________, however, _________ this system can be useful, or even _________. Hypothermia is the _________ term for an _________ low body temperature (_________- = _________ or _________). Controlled _________ is _________ induced _________ performed in order to reduce the metabolic rate of an organ or of a person’s entire body.

Controlled _________ often is used, for example, during open-heart _________ because it decreases the metabolic _________ of the brain, heart, and other organs, _________ the _________ of _________ to them. When _________ hypothermia is used _________, the _________ is _________ medication to prevent _________. The body is then cooled to 25–32°C (_________). The heart is _________ and an external _________ pump _________ circulation to the _________ body. The heart is cooled further and is maintained at a temperature below _________ (60°F) for the _________ of the surgery. This very cold temperature _________ the heart muscle to tolerate its lack of blood supply during the surgery.

Some _________ department _________ use _________ hypothermia to reduce _________ to the heart in patients who have _________ a _________ arrest. In the _________ department, the physician _________ coma and lowers the patient’s body temperature to approximately _________ degrees. This condition, which is _________ for _________ hours, _________ the _________ metabolic rate. Because the patient’s _________ require less blood to function, the heart’s _________ is _________.

Narrow Range of Atmospheric Pressure

Pressure is a force exerted by a _________ that is in _________ with another substance. _________ pressure is pressure _________ by the mixture of gases (_________ nitrogen and oxygen) in the _________ atmosphere. Although you may not _________ it, _________ pressure is constantly _________ down on your body. This pressure keeps _________ within your body, such as the gaseous _________ in body fluids, _________. If you were suddenly ejected from a space ship above Earth’s _________, you would go from a situation of _________ pressure to one of very low pressure. The pressure of the _________ gas in your blood would be much _________ than the pressure of nitrogen in the space surrounding your body. As a result, the _________ gas in your blood would _________, forming _________ that could block blood vessels and even cause cells to break apart.

Atmospheric pressure does more than just keep blood gases _________. Your ability to _________ is, to take in oxygen and release _________ dioxide—also _________ upon a precise _________ pressure. _________ sickness _________ in part because the atmosphere at high _________ exerts less pressure, _________ the _________ of these gases, and causing _________ of breath, confusion, _________, lethargy, and nausea. Mountain climbers carry oxygen to reduce the effects of both low oxygen _________ and low barometric pressure at _________ altitudes (Figure 1.9).

FIGURE 1.9 Harsh Conditions

HOMEOSTATIC _________ Decompression _________ Decompression _________ (DCS) is a condition in which gases _________ in the blood or in other body _________ are no longer _________ following a reduction in pressure on the body. This condition affects _________ divers who surface from a deep dive too quickly, and it can affect _________ flying at high _________ in _________ with _________ cabins. _________ often _________ this condition “the _________ a _________ to _________ pain that is a symptom of DCS.

In all cases, _________ is brought about by a _________ in _________ pressure. At high _________, barometric pressure is much less than on _________ surface because pressure is produced by the weight of the column of air above the body pressing down on the body. The very great pressures on divers in deep water are _________ from the weight of a column of water pressing down on the body. For divers, _________ occurs at normal _________ pressure (at sea level), but it is brought on by the _________ rapid _________ of pressure as _________ rise from the high pressure _________ of deep water to the now low, by comparison, pressure at sea level. Not surprisingly, _________ in deep mountain _________, where _________ pressure at the surface of the lake is less than that at sea level is more likely to result in DCS than diving in water at sea level.

In _________, gases _________ in the blood (_________ nitrogen) come rapidly out of solution, forming _________ in the blood and in other body _________. This _________ because when pressure of a gas over a liquid is decreased, the amount of gas that can remain dissolved in the liquid also is decreased. It is air pressure that keeps your normal blood gases _________ in the blood. When pressure is reduced, less gas _________ dissolved. You have seen this in effect when you open a _________ drink. _________ the _________ of the bottle _________ the pressure of the gas over the liquid. This in turn _________ bubbles as dissolved _________ (in this case, _________ dioxide) come out of solution in the liquid.

The most common _________ of _________ are _________ in the joints, with headache and disturbances of vision _________ in _________ percent to 15 _________ of _________. Left _________, very _________ DCS can result in death. _________ treatment is with _________ oxygen. The affected person is then moved into a _________ chamber. A hyperbaric _________ is a reinforced, _________ chamber that is _________ to _________ than _________ pressure. It treats _________ by _________ the body so that pressure can then be removed much more _________. Because the hyperbaric _________ introduces oxygen to the body at high pressure, it _________ the _________ of oxygen in the blood. This has the effect of replacing some of the nitrogen in the blood with oxygen, which is easier to tolerate out of solution.

The _________ pressure of body _________ is also important to human _________. For example, blood pressure, which is the pressure exerted by blood as it _________ within blood vessels, must be great enough to enable blood to reach all body tissues, and yet low enough to ensure that the _________ blood _________ can _________ the _________ and force of the pulsating _________ of _________ blood

1.5 Homeostasis

Maintaining _________ requires that the body continuously _________ its _________ conditions. From body temperature to blood pressure to levels of certain _________, each _________ condition has a particular set point. A set point is the _________ value around which the normal _________ fluctuates. A normal _________ is the restricted set of _________ that is optimally _________ and _________. For example, the set point for normal human body temperature is _________ 37°C (_________) Physiological _________, such as body temperature and blood pressure, _________ to _________ within a normal _________ a few degrees above and below that point. Control _________ in the brain and other _________ of the body _________ and _________ to _________ from _________ using _________ feedback. _________ feedback is a _________ that _________ a _________ from the set point. Therefore, _________ feedback _________ body _________ within their normal _________. The _________ of _________ by _________ feedback _________ on throughout the body at all times, and an _________ of _________ feedback is thus _________ to an understanding of human _________.

Negative Feedback

A _________ feedback system has three basic _________ (Figure 1.10a). A _________, also _________ to a receptor, is a _________ of a feedback system that _________ a _________ value. This value is reported to the control center. The control center is the component in a _________ system that compares the value to the _________ range. If the value deviates too much from the set point, then the control center _________ an _________. An _________ is the component in a _________ system that causes a change to reverse the situation and return the value to the _________ range.

FIGURE 1.10 Negative Feedback System

In order to set the system in motion, a _________ must drive a _________ parameter beyond its _________ range (that is, beyond homeostasis). This stimulus is “heard” by a _________ sensor. For example, in the control of blood glucose, _________ endocrine _________ in the pancreas _________ excess _________ (the _________) in the bloodstream. These pancreatic _________ cells _________ to the increased level of blood glucose by releasing the hormone _________ into the bloodstream. The insulin _________ skeletal _________ fibers, _________ cells (_________), and _________ cells to take up the _________ glucose, _________ it from the _________. As _________ concentration in the _________ drops, the decrease in concentration—the _________ negative _________ detected by pancreatic _________ cells, and insulin _________ stops. This prevents blood sugar _________ from _________ to drop below the normal _________.

Humans have a similar temperature _________ feedback system that _________ by _________ either heat loss or heat _________ (Figure 1.10b). When the brain’s temperature regulation center receives _________ from the sensors _________ that the body’s temperature exceeds its normal _________, it _________ a _________ of _________ cells _________ to as the _________ center.” This stimulation has three major effects

• Blood vessels in the skin begin to dilate _________ more blood from the body _________ to _________ to the surface of the skin allowing the heat to radiate into the environment.

• As blood _________ to the skin _________, sweat _________ are _________ to increase their _________. As the sweat _________ from the skin surface into the surrounding air, it _________ heat with it.

• The depth of respiration _________, and a person may breathe through an open mouth instead of through the _________ passageways. This further _________ heat _________ from the lungs.

In _________, activation of the _________ heat-gain center by _________ to cold reduces blood flow to the skin, and blood returning from the _________ is _________ into a network of deep _________. This _________ traps heat closer to the body core and restricts heat loss. If heat _________ is _________, the _________ triggers an increase in random _________ to _________ muscles, _________ them to contract and producing _________. The _________ contractions of shivering _________ heat while using up ATP. The brain _________ the _________ gland in the _________ system to release _________ hormone, which increases _________ activity and heat _________ in _________ throughout the body. The brain also signals the adrenal _________ to _________ epinephrine (_________), a _________ that _________ the _________ of _________ into _________, which can be _________ as an energy _________. The _________ of _________ into _________ also _________ in _________ metabolism and heat _________.

Positive Feedback

Positive _________ intensifies a change in the _________ physiological condition rather than reversing it. A _________ from the normal _________ results in more change, and the system _________ farther away from the normal _________. Positive _________ in the body is normal only when there is a definite end point. _________ and the body’s _________ to blood loss are two _________ of _________ feedback _________ that are normal but are _________ only when needed.

Childbirth at full _________ is an example of a situation in which the _________ of the existing body state is not _________. Enormous _________ in a person’s body are required to _________ the baby at the end of pregnancy. And the _________ of _________, once _________, must progress rapidly to a _________ or the life of a person giving _________ and the baby are at _________. The _________ muscular work of _________ and _________ are the result of a _________ feedback system (Figure 1.11).

FIGURE 1.11 Positive Feedback Loop

The first contractions of labor (the stimulus) push the baby toward the cervix (the lowest part of the uterus). The cervix _________ stretch-sensitive _________ cells that monitor the degree of stretching (the sensors). These nerve _________ send _________ to the brain, which in turn causes the pituitary _________ at the base of the _________ to _________ the _________ oxytocin into the _________. Oxytocin _________ stronger _________ of the smooth muscles in of the _________ (the _________), pushing the baby further down the birth _________. This _________ even _________ stretching of the _________. The _________ of _________, oxytocin _________, and _________ more _________ contractions _________ only when the baby is born. At this point, the stretching of the _________ halts, _________ the _________ of _________.

A second example of positive _________ centers on reversing _________ damage to the body. Following a penetrating _________, the most immediate _________ is _________ blood _________. Less blood circulating _________ reduced blood pressure and reduced _________ (penetration of blood) to the _________ and other vital _________. If _________ is _________ reduced, _________ organs will shut down and the person will die. The body _________ to this potential _________ by _________ substances in the _________ blood _________ wall that begin the process of blood _________. As each step of clotting _________, it _________ the _________ of more clotting _________. This _________ the _________ of _________ and _________ off the damaged area. Clotting is contained in a _________ area _________ on the tightly _________ availability of clotting _________. This is an _________, life-saving _________ of _________.

1.6 Anatomical Terminology

Anatomists and health care providers use terminology that can be bewildering to the _________. However, the purpose of this language is not to _________, but rather to increase precision and reduce _________ errors. For example, is a _________ “above the wrist” located on the forearm two or three inches away from the hand? Or is it at the base of the _________ Is it on the palm-side or back-side? By using _________ anatomical _________, we _________ ambiguity. _________ terms _________ from ancient Greek and Latin words. Because these languages are no longer used in everyday conversation, the _________ of their words does not change.

Anatomical _________ are made up of roots, _________, and _________. The _________ of a term often refers to an _________, tissue, or condition, _________ the _________ or _________ often _________ the _________. For example, in the disorder _________, the _________ “hyper-” _________ “high” or “over,” and the _________ word _________ refers to pressure, so the _________ “hypertension” _________ to _________ high blood pressure.

Anatomical Position

To further increase _________, anatomists _________ the way in which they _________ the body. Just as maps are normally _________ with north at the top, the standard body “map,” or anatomical position, is that of the body _________ upright, with the feet at shoulder width and parallel, _________ forward. The upper _________ are held out to each side, and the palms of the _________ face forward as _________ in Figure 1.12. _________ this standard position _________ confusion. It does not matter how the body being _________ is _________, the _________ are _________ as if it is in _________ position. For example, a scar in the _________ (front) _________ (wrist) _________ would be present on the _________ side of the _________. The _________ “anterior” would be _________ even if the hand were _________ down on a table.

FIGURE 1.12 Regions of the Human Body

A body that is lying down is _________ as either prone or supine. _________ describes a face-down _________, and _________ describes a face up orientation. These terms are sometimes _________ in _________ the position of the body during specific physical examinations or surgical _________.

Regional Terms

The human body’s _________ regions have specific _________ to help increase _________ (see Figure 1.12). Notice that the term _________ or _________ is _________ for the “upper _________ and _________ or _________ is _________ rather than “lower _________ Similarly, _________ or _________ is correct, and _________ or _________ is _________ for the portion of the _________ limb between the _________ and the ankle. You will be able to describe the body’s _________ using the terms from the figure.

Directional Terms

Certain _________ anatomical _________ appear throughout this and any other anatomy _________ (Figure 1.13). These _________ are _________ for _________ the _________ locations of different body structures. For instance, an anatomist might describe one band of tissue as “inferior _________ another or a _________ might describe a _________ as _________ to” a deeper body structure. _________ these _________ to _________ to avoid confusion when you are studying or describing the locations of particular body parts.

• _________ (or _________) Describes the front or direction toward the front of the body. The toes are anterior to the Foot.

• _________ (or _________) Describes the back or direction toward the back of the body. The popliteus is posterior to the _________.

• _________ (or _________) describes a position above or _________ than another part of the body proper. The orbits are superior to the _________.

• _________ (or _________) describes a position below or _________ than another part of the body proper; near or toward the tail (in _________, the _________, or _________ part of the _________ column). The pelvis is inferior to the _________.

• _________ describes the side or direction toward the side of the body. The thumb (_________) is _________ to the digits.

• _________ describes the middle or direction toward the middle of the body. The hallux is the _________ toe.

• _________ describes a position in a _________ that is nearer to the point of _________ or the trunk of the body. The _________ is _________ to the antebrachium.

• _________ describes a position in a _________ that is farther from the point of _________ or the trunk of the body. The _________ is _________ to the femur.

• _________ describes a position _________ to the surface of the body. The skin is _________ to the bones.

• Deep describes a position farther from the surface of the body. The _________ is deep to the skull.

FIGURE 1.13 Directional Terms Applied to the Human Body

Body Planes

A section is a two-dimensional surface of a three-dimensional structure that has been cut. Modern _________ imaging _________ enable _________ to _________ “virtual _________ of living bodies. We call these scans. Body sections and scans can be _________ interpreted, however, only if the _________ understands the plane along which the section was made. A plane is an _________ two-dimensional surface that _________ through the body. There are three planes _________ referred to in _________ and medicine, as _________ in Figure 1.14.

• The sagittal plane is the plane that divides the body or an _________ vertically into right and left _________. If this vertical plane runs _________ down the middle of the body, it is called the midsagittal or median plane. If it divides the body into unequal right and left sides, it is called a _________ plane or less _________ a _________ section.

• The frontal plane is the plane that divides the body or an _________ into an anterior (front) portion and a _________ (rear) _________. The _________ plane is often _________ to as a _________ plane. (_________ is _________ for _________)

• The transverse plane is the plane that divides the body or organ _________ into _________ and _________ portions.

FIGURE 1.14 Planes of the Body

Body Cavities and Serous Membranes

The body maintains its internal _________ by _________ of _________, sheaths, and other _________ that separate compartments. The dorsal (_________) cavity and the _________ (anterior) _________ are the largest body compartments (Figure 1.15). These cavities contain and protect delicate _________ organs, and the _________ cavity _________ for _________ changes in the size and shape of the organs as they _________ their _________. The _________, heart, stomach, and _________, for example, can _________ and _________ without _________ other _________ or _________ the _________ of _________ organs.

FIGURE 1.15 Dorsal and Ventral Body Cavities

Subdivisions of the Posterior (Dorsal) and Anterior (Ventral) Cavities

The _________ (dorsal) and anterior (_________) cavities are each _________ into _________ cavities. In the _________ (dorsal) _________, the _________ cavity _________ the _________, and the spinal _________ (or _________ cavity) _________ the _________ cord. Just as the brain and spinal _________ make up a _________, uninterrupted structure, the _________ and _________ cavities that house them are also continuous. The brain and spinal _________ are _________ by the bones of the _________ and _________ column and by _________ fluid, a colorless _________ produced by the _________, which _________ the _________ and _________ cord within the _________ (dorsal) _________.

The _________ (ventral) _________ has two main _________: the _________ cavity and the _________ cavity (see Figure 1.15). The _________ cavity is the more superior _________ of the anterior _________, and it is _________ by the rib _________. The _________ cavity _________ the _________ and the heart, which is located in the mediastinum. The diaphragm _________ the floor of the thoracic _________ and _________ it from the more inferior _________ cavity. The abdominopelvic _________ is the largest _________ in the body. Although no _________ physically _________ the _________ cavity, it can be useful to distinguish between the _________ cavity, the division that houses the digestive _________, and the pelvic _________, the _________ that _________ the _________ of _________.

Abdominal Regions and Quadrants

To _________ clear _________, for instance about the location of a _________ abdominal _________ or a suspicious _________, health care providers _________ divide up the _________ into either nine _________ or four quadrants (Figure 1.16).

FIGURE 1.16 Regions and Quadrants of the Peritoneal Cavity

The more detailed _________ approach _________ the _________ with one horizontal line immediately _________ to the ribs and one immediately superior to the _________, and two vertical _________ drawn as if _________ from the midpoint of each _________ (collarbone). There are nine resulting _________. The _________ quadrants _________, which is more _________ used in medicine, _________ the _________ with one horizontal and one _________ line that intersect at the _________ umbilicus (_________).

Membranes of the Anterior (Ventral) Body Cavity

A _________ membrane (also referred to a _________) is one of the thin _________ that cover the _________ and _________ in the thoracic and abdominopelvic _________. The _________ layers of the _________ line the walls of the body cavity (_________ to a cavity wall). The _________ layer of the _________ covers the organs (the viscera). Between the _________ and _________ layers is a very thin, _________ serous space, or _________ (Figure 1.17).

FIGURE 1.17 Serous Membrane

There are three _________ cavities and their _________ membranes. The pleura is the _________ membrane that encloses the pleural _________; the _________ cavity _________ the _________. The _________ is the serous _________ that _________ the _________ cavity; the pericardial _________ surrounds the heart. The peritoneum is the _________ membrane that encloses the peritoneal _________; the _________ cavity _________ several _________ in the abdominopelvic _________. The _________ membranes form fluid-filled _________, or _________, that are meant to cushion and reduce _________ on _________ organs when they move, such as when the lungs _________ or the heart _________. Both the parietal and visceral _________ secrete the thin, _________ serous _________ located within the _________ cavities. The pleural _________ reduces _________ between the lungs and the body wall. _________, the _________ cavity _________ friction between the heart and the wall of the _________. The _________ cavity _________ friction between the _________ and _________ organs and the body wall. Therefore, serous _________ provide _________ protection to the _________ they _________ by _________ friction that could lead to _________ of the organs.

1.7 Medical Imaging

For _________ of _________, fear of the dead and _________ sanctions _________ the ability of _________ and _________ to study the _________ structures of the human body. An inability to control _________, infection, and pain made surgeries _________, and those that were performed—such as wound _________, amputations, _________ and _________ removals, _________ drilling, and cesarean _________ not _________ advance knowledge about _________ anatomy. _________ about the function of the body and about disease were therefore _________ based on external _________ and _________. During the fourteenth and fifteenth _________, however, the detailed _________ drawings of Italian _________ and _________ Leonardo _________ Vinci and Flemish _________ Andreas _________ were _________, and interest in human anatomy began to increase. Medical _________ began to teach _________ using human dissection; although some _________ to _________ robbing to obtain _________. Laws were eventually _________ that _________ students to dissect the corpses of criminals and those who donated their bodies for research. Still, it was not until the late nineteenth century that _________ researchers _________ non-surgical _________ to look inside the living body.

X-Rays

German _________ Wilhelm _________ (1845–1923) was experimenting with electrical current when he discovered that a _________ and _________ “ray” would pass through his _________ but leave an _________ of his bones on a _________ coated with a _________ compound. In 1895, _________ made the first _________ record of the _________ parts of a living human: an “X-ray” _________ (as it came to be called) of his wife’s hand. Scientists around the world quickly began their own experiments with X-rays, and by _________, X-rays were widely _________ to _________ a variety of _________ and _________. In _________, Rontgen was awarded the first _________ Prize for physics for his work in this field.

The _________ is a form of high energy electromagnetic _________ with a short _________ capable of penetrating solid and _________ gases. As they are used in medicine, _________ are _________ from an X-ray machine and _________ toward a specially _________ metallic _________ placed behind the _________ body. The beam of radiation _________ in _________ of the X-ray _________. X-rays are slightly _________ by soft tissues, which show up as gray on the X-ray _________, whereas hard tissues, such as _________, largely _________ the _________, producing a light-toned _________ Thus, _________ are best used to visualize hard body _________ such as teeth and bones (Figure 1.18). Like many _________ of high energy _________, however, _________ are _________ of _________ cells and initiating _________ that can lead to cancer. This danger of excessive _________ to _________ was not fully _________ for many years after their _________ use.

FIGURE 1.18 X-Ray of a Hand

Refinements and enhancements of X-ray _________ have _________ throughout the twentieth and twenty-first _________. Although often supplanted by more _________ imaging _________, the _________ remains a “workhorse” in medical _________, especially for viewing _________ and for dentistry. The disadvantage of irradiation to the _________ and the operator is now _________ by proper shielding and by _________ exposure.

Modern Medical Imaging

X-rays can depict a two-dimensional _________ of a body region, and only from a single angle. In _________, more _________ medical _________ technologies produce data that is _________ and _________ by _________ to produce threedimensional _________ or _________ that _________ aspects of body _________.

Computed Tomography

Tomography _________ to _________ by _________. Computed _________ (CT) is a _________ imaging _________ that _________ computers to analyze several cross-sectional _________ in order to _________ minute details about _________ in the body (Figure 1.19a). The technique was invented in the _________ and is based on the _________ that, as X-rays pass through the body, they are _________ or _________ at different levels. In the _________, a _________ lies on a _________ platform while a _________ axial _________ (CAT) _________ rotates _________ degrees around the _________, taking _________ images. A computer _________ these _________ into a two-dimensional _________ of the scanned area, or _________

FIGURE 1.19 Medical Imaging Techniques

Since _________, the _________ of more powerful _________ and more sophisticated _________ has made CT _________ routine for many _________ of _________ evaluations. It is especially useful for soft _________ scanning, such as of the _________ and the thoracic and abdominal _________. Its level of _________ is so precise that it can allow _________ to measure the size of a mass down to a millimeter. The main _________ of _________ scanning is that it exposes _________ to a dose of radiation many times _________ than that of _________. In fact, children who undergo _________ scans are at _________ risk of developing _________, as are adults who have _________ CT _________.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Magnetic _________ imaging (_________) is a noninvasive _________ imaging _________ based on a _________ of _________ physics _________ in the 1930s, in which matter exposed to magnetic _________ and radio waves was found to emit radio signals. In 1970, a physician and researcher _________ Raymond _________ noticed that malignant (_________) tissue gave off different signals than normal body tissue. He applied for a _________ for the first _________ scanning _________, which was in use clinically by the early 1980s. The early _________ scanners were crude, but advances in digital _________ and _________ led to their _________ over any other _________ for _________ imaging, especially to discover tumors. _________ also has the major advantage of not _________ patients to radiation.

Drawbacks of MRI _________ include their much _________ cost, and patient _________ with the procedure. The MRI _________ subjects the patient to such _________ electromagnets that the _________ room must be _________. The _________ must be enclosed in a _________ tube-like _________ for the duration of the _________ (see Figure 1.19b), _________ as long as _________ minutes, which can be uncomfortable and impractical for ill _________. The _________ is also so _________ that, even with _________, patients can become _________ or even fearful. These problems have been _________ somewhat with the _________ of _________ MRI _________, which does not _________ the _________ to be entirely _________ in the metal tube. Patients with iron-containing _________ implants (_________ sutures, some prosthetic _________, and so on) cannot undergo _________ scanning because it can dislodge these implants.

Functional _________ (fMRIs), which detect the concentration of blood _________ in certain parts of the body, are _________ being _________ to study the _________ in _________ of the brain during various body activities. This has _________ scientists learn more about the _________ of different brain _________ and more about _________ abnormalities and diseases.

Positron Emission Tomography

Positron _________ tomography (_________) is a medical _________ technique _________ the use of _________ radiopharmaceuticals, _________ that _________ radiation that is _________ and therefore relatively safe to _________ to the body. Although the first PET _________ was _________ in _________, it took 15 more years before radiopharmaceuticals were combined with the _________ and _________ its _________. The main advantage is that _________ (see Figure 1.19c) can illustrate _________ activity—including _________ metabolism and blood _________ the _________ or _________ being _________, whereas _________ and _________ scans can only show static _________. PET is widely _________ to _________ a _________ of _________, such as heart disease, the spread of _________, certain _________ of _________, brain _________, bone disease, and _________ disease.

Ultrasonography

Ultrasonography is an _________ technique that uses the transmission of high-frequency sound waves into the body to _________ an _________ signal that is _________ by a computer into a _________ image of anatomy and physiology (see Figure 1.19d). Ultrasonography is the least invasive of all _________ techniques, and it is therefore _________ more _________ in _________ situations such as _________. The _________ was first developed in the _________ and _________. Ultrasonography is used to study heart function, blood flow in the neck or _________, certain _________ such as gallbladder disease, and _________ growth and development. The main _________ of _________ are that the _________ quality is heavily _________ and that it is unable to penetrate _________ and gas.