Table of Content

Fill in the Blank Questions

An Introduction to the Human Body

Figure 1.1 Blood Pressure

INTRODUCTION

· You may take a course in _________ and _________ as a requirement for your field of _________.

· The knowledge gained in this course will serve you well in many aspects of your _________.

· Understanding _________ and _________ is fundamental to any career in the _________.

· It can also benefit your _________.

· Familiarity with the _________ helps you make _________.

· It can prompt you to take action when signs of _________ arise.

· Your knowledge will help you understand _________ about _________, _________, _________, and _________.

· It will also help you understand _________ and _________.

· Everyone will face a problem with some part of their _________ at some point.

· Your knowledge can help you be a better _________, _________, _________, _________, _________, or _________.

· This chapter begins with an _________ of _________ and _________ and a preview of the _________ and _________.

· It then covers the _________ of _________ and how the body works to maintain _________.

· It introduces a set of _________ for _________, _________, and _________.

· These terms will serve as a foundation for more _________ covered later in the text.

· It ends with examples of _________ used to see inside the _________.

1.1 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

· _________ is the scientific study of the body’s _________.

· Some of these structures are very _________ and can only be observed with a _________.

· Other _________ can be seen, manipulated, measured, and weighed.

· The word _________ comes from a _________ root that means “to cut apart.”

· _________ was first studied by observing the _________ of the body and examining wounds from _________ and injuries.

· Later, _________ were allowed to _________ bodies of the dead to augment their _________.

· When a body is _________, its _________ are cut apart to observe their _________ and _________.

· _________ is still used in _________, _________, and _________.

· To observe structures in _________, a number of _________ have been developed.

· These techniques allow _________ to visualize structures inside the _________, such as a _________ or a _________.

· Like most _________, _________ has areas of _________.

· _________ is the study of _________ of the body, those visible without magnification (Figure 1.2 a).

· _________ means “large,” so _________ is also called _________.

· In contrast, _________ means “small,” and _________ is the study of structures visible only with a _________ or other magnification devices (Figure 1.2 b).

· _________ includes _________, the study of _________, and _________, the study of _________.

· As microscope _________ has advanced, _________ have been able to observe smaller structures, from slices of large structures like the _________ to the three-dimensional structures of large _________ in the body.

FIGURE 1.2 Gross and Microscopic Anatomy

· _________ take two general approaches to the study of the body’s _________: _________ and _________.

· _________ is the study of the interrelationships of all structures in a specific body _________, such as the _________.

· Studying _________ helps us appreciate how muscles, _________, _________, and other structures work together to serve a particular body _________.

· In contrast, _________ is the study of the structures that make up a discrete body _________, a group of structures that work together to perform a unique body _________.

· For example, a _________ of the _________ would consider all of the _________ of the body.

· Whereas _________ is about _________, _________ is about _________.

· _________ is the scientific study of the _________ and _________ of the body’s structures and how they work together to support the _________.

· Much of the study of _________ centers on the body’s tendency toward _________.

· _________ is the state of steady _________ maintained by living things.

· The study of _________ includes _________, both with the naked eye and with _________, as well as manipulations and _________.

· However, advances in _________ usually depend on carefully designed _________ that reveal the functions of the many _________ and _________ that make up the human body.

· Like _________, _________ typically specialize in a particular branch of _________.

· For example, _________ is the study of the _________, _________, and _________, and how they work together to perform functions like _________, _________, and _________.

· _________ may work from the _________ (exploring what different parts of the _________ do) to the _________ (such as exploring how an _________ travels along _________).

· _________ is closely related to _________ in all living things.

· For example, the thin _________ of your _________ can snap down to clear away dust particles and almost instantaneously slide back up to allow you to _________ again.

· At the _________, the arrangement and function of the _________ and _________ that serve the eyelid allow for its quick _________ and _________.

· At a smaller level, the function of these _________ and _________ relies on the interactions of specific _________ and _________.

· Even the three-dimensional _________ of certain _________ is essential to their _________.

· Your study of _________ and _________ will make more sense if you continually relate the _________ of the structures to their _________.

· It can be frustrating to study _________ without understanding the _________ that supports each body _________.

· Imagine trying to appreciate the unique arrangement of the _________ of the _________ without understanding the _________ of the hand.

· Fortunately, your understanding of how the human hand _________—from _________ to _________—helps you appreciate the unique alignment of the _________ in opposition to the four _________.

· This makes your hand a _________ that allows you to _________, _________, and _________.

1.2 Structural Organization of the Human Body

· Before studying the different _________ and _________ of the human body, it is helpful to consider its basic _________.

· This means understanding how its smallest parts are assembled into larger _________.

· It is convenient to consider the _________ of the body in terms of fundamental _________ that increase in _________.

· These levels include _________, _________, _________, _________, _________, _________, _________, _________, _________, and the _________ (Figure 1.3).

FIGURE 1.3 Levels of Structural Organization of the Human Body

· To study the _________, scientists consider the simplest building blocks of _________: _________, _________, and _________.

· All _________ is composed of one or more unique pure substances called _________, such as _________, _________, _________, _________, _________, and _________.

· The smallest unit of any _________ is an _________.

· _________ are made up of _________ such as the _________, _________, and _________.

· Two or more _________ combine to form a _________, such as _________, _________, and _________ found in living things.

· _________ are the chemical building blocks of all _________.

· A _________ is the smallest independently functioning unit of a _________.

· Even _________, which are extremely small, independently-living organisms, have a _________.

· Each _________ is a _________.

· All living structures of _________ contain _________.

· Almost all functions of _________ are performed in _________ or are initiated by _________.

· A _________ typically consists of flexible _________ that enclose _________, a water-based cellular fluid.

· The cytoplasm contains a variety of tiny functioning units called _________.

· In humans, as in all organisms, _________ perform all functions of _________.

· A _________ is a group of many similar _________ that work together to perform a specific _________.

· An _________ is an anatomically distinct structure composed of two or more _________.

· Each _________ performs one or more specific _________.

· An _________ is a group of _________ that work together to perform major _________ or meet _________ of the body.

· This book covers _________ in the _________ (Figure 1.4 and Figure 1.5).

· Assigning _________ to organ systems can be imprecise, as organs that “belong” to one system may also have functions integral to another system.

· In fact, most _________ contribute to more than one _________.

· In this book and throughout your studies of _________, you will read descriptions related to similarities and differences among _________, _________, and _________ related to a person’s _________.

· People often use the words _________ and _________ to describe two different concepts: _________ and _________.

· _________ is determined by _________, _________, _________, and other physical characteristics.

· For some people, _________ differs from _________ or the sex assigned at _________.

· Throughout this book, _________ and _________ refer to _________ only, and the typical _________ and _________ of _________ and _________ individuals are discussed.

FIGURE 1.4 Organ Systems of the Human Body

FIGURE 1.5 Organ Systems of the Human Body (continued)

· The _________ is the highest level of _________.

· An _________ is a living being with a _________ that can independently perform all _________ necessary for _________.

· In _________, including _________, all _________, _________, _________, and _________ work together to maintain the _________ and _________ of the organism.

1.3 Functions of Human Life

· The different _________ each have different _________ and unique roles in _________.

· These functions can be summarized in terms of a few that are definitive of _________: _________, _________, _________, _________, _________, and _________.

Organization

· A _________ consists of trillions of _________ organized to maintain distinct internal _________.

· These _________ keep body _________ separated from external environmental _________ and keep the cells _________ and _________.

· They also separate internal _________ from the countless _________ on body surfaces, including the lining of passageways connecting to the outer surface of the body.

· The _________ is home to more _________ than all human _________ combined, yet these _________ remain outside the body and cannot circulate freely inside the body.

· _________ have a _________ (also called the _________) that keeps the intracellular environment—the _________ and _________—separate from the extracellular environment.

· _________ keep _________ inside a closed _________.

· _________ and _________ are wrapped in _________ that separate them from surrounding structures.

· In the _________ and _________, a variety of internal _________ keep major _________ such as the _________, _________, and _________ separate from others.

· The body’s largest _________ is the _________, which includes the _________ and its associated structures, such as _________ and _________.

· The surface tissue of _________ acts as a _________ that protects internal structures and _________ from harmful _________ and other _________.

Metabolism

· The _________ states that energy can neither be _________ nor _________—it can only change form.

· Your basic function as an _________ is to consume (_________) _________ and _________ in the foods you eat.

· You convert some of this energy into _________ for _________, sustain body _________, and build and maintain _________.

· There are two types of reactions that accomplish this: _________ and _________.

· _________ is the process where smaller, simpler _________ are combined into larger, more complex _________.

· Your body can assemble, using _________, the complex _________ it needs by combining small _________ from the foods you eat.

· _________ is the process by which larger, more complex _________ are broken down into smaller, simpler _________.

· _________ releases _________.

· The complex _________ found in foods are broken down so the body can use their parts to assemble the _________ and _________ needed for life.

· Taken together, these two processes are called _________.

· _________ is the sum of all _________ and _________ reactions that occur in the body (Figure 1.6).

· Both _________ and _________ occur simultaneously and continuously to keep you _________.

FIGURE 1.6 Metabolism

· Every _________ in your body uses a chemical compound, _________ (_________), to store and release _________.

· The cell stores _________ in the synthesis (_________) of _________, then moves the _________ to the location where _________ is needed.

· The _________ is broken down (_________), and a controlled amount of _________ is released, which is used by the cell to perform a particular _________.

Responsiveness

· _________ is the ability of an _________ to adjust to changes in its internal and external _________.

· An example of responsiveness to _________ includes moving toward sources of _________ and _________ and away from perceived _________.

· Changes in an organism’s internal environment, such as increased _________, can cause responses like _________ and the dilation of _________ in the _________ to decrease body temperature (Figure 1.7).

Movement

· _________ includes actions at the _________ of the body, as well as the motion of individual _________ and even _________.

· As you read these words, _________ and _________ are moving throughout your _________, _________ are contracting and relaxing to maintain your _________ and focus your _________, and _________ are secreting chemicals to regulate body _________.

· Your body coordinates the action of entire _________ to move air into and out of your _________, push _________ throughout your body, and propel the _________ through your _________.

· Consciously, you contract your _________ to move the _________ of your skeleton to get from one place to another (as the runners are doing in Figure 1.7) and to carry out all of the activities of your _________.

FIGURE 1.7 Marathon Runners

Development, growth and reproduction

· _________ is all the changes the body goes through in _________.

· _________ includes the process of _________, where unspecialized _________ become specialized in structure and _________ to perform specific tasks.

· _________ also includes the processes of _________ and _________, both of which involve _________.

· _________ is the increase in _________.

· Humans, like all _________, grow by increasing the number of _________.

· Growth also involves increasing the amount of non-cellular material around _________, such as _________ in _________.

· Additionally, growth can involve, within very narrow limits, increasing the _________ of existing _________.

· _________ is the formation of a new _________ from parent organisms.

· In _________, _________ is carried out by the _________ and _________.

· Without _________, the line of _________ would end, as _________ comes to all complex organisms.

1.4 Requirements for Human Life

· _________ have been acclimating to life on _________ for at least the past _________.

· _________ and its _________ provide us with _________ to breathe, _________ to drink, and _________ to eat, but these are not the only requirements for _________.

· Although you may rarely think about it, you cannot live outside a certain range of _________ and _________ that the surface of the planet and its _________ provide.

· The next sections explore these four _________. (Oxygen, nutrients, narrow range of temperature, narrow range of pressure.)

Oxygen

· _________ is about 20 percent _________, which is a key component of the chemical reactions that keep the body _________, including those that produce _________.

· _________ are especially sensitive to lack of _________ due to their need for high and steady _________ production.

· _________ is likely within five minutes without _________, and _________ is likely within ten minutes.

Nutrients

· A _________ is a substance in _________ and _________ essential to human _________.

· The three basic classes of _________ are _________, the _________ and _________, and _________ (_________ and _________).

· The most critical _________ is _________.

· Depending on _________ and our state of _________, we may survive only a few days without _________.

· The body’s functional _________ are dissolved and transported in _________, and the chemical reactions of _________ take place in _________.

· Moreover, _________ is the largest component of _________, _________, and the fluid between _________, making up about 70 percent of an adult’s _________.

· _________ helps regulate internal _________ and cushions, protects, and lubricates _________ and many other _________.

· The _________ are primarily _________ and _________, while _________ mainly supply the _________ that are the building blocks of the body.

· You ingest these nutrients in _________ and _________ and _________, and the _________ breaks them down into molecules small enough to be absorbed.

· The breakdown products of _________ and _________ can be used in metabolic processes that convert them to _________.

· Although you may feel as if you are starving after missing a single meal, you can survive without consuming the _________ for at least several _________.

· _________ and the _________ are referred to as _________ because the body needs them in large amounts.

· In contrast, _________ are _________ and _________.

· These _________ and _________ participate in many essential _________ and processes, such as _________.

· Some, like _________, also contribute to the body’s _________.

· Your body can _________ some of the _________ in its _________ and draw on those reserves if you fail to consume them in your diet for a few days or weeks.

· Some _________, like _________ and most of the _________, are _________ and cannot be _________, so you need to consume them every _________ or _________.

Narrow Range of Temperature

· You have probably seen news stories about _________ who died of _________ or hikers who died of exposure to _________.

· Such deaths occur because the _________ the body depends on can only take place within a narrow range of _________, from just below to just above _________ (98.6°F).

· When body temperature rises well above or drops well below normal, certain _________ (_________) lose their normal structure and their ability to function.

· As a result, the _________ of _________ cannot proceed.

· The body can respond effectively to short-term exposure to _________ (Figure 1.8) or _________.

· One of the body’s responses to _________ is _________.

· As _________ evaporates from the _________, it removes thermal energy from the body, _________ it.

· Adequate _________ from extracellular fluid is necessary to produce _________, so proper fluid intake is essential to balance the loss during the sweat response.

· The sweat response is less effective in a _________ environment because the air is already saturated with _________.

· Thus, the _________ on the skin’s surface cannot evaporate, causing internal body _________ to rise dangerously.

· The body can respond effectively to short-term exposure to _________.

· One response to _________ is _________, which is random muscle movement that generates _________.

· Another response is increased breakdown of stored _________ to generate _________.

· When the energy reserve is depleted and core _________ drops significantly, red _________ lose their ability to give up _________, denying the _________ of this critical component of _________ production.

· This lack of _________ can cause _________, _________, and eventually loss of _________ and _________.

· The body responds to _________ by reducing blood circulation to the _________, like the _________ and _________, to prevent blood from cooling there and keep the body’s _________ warm.

· Even when core body _________ remains stable, tissues exposed to severe _________, especially the _________ and _________, can develop _________ when blood flow to the extremities is reduced.

· This tissue damage can be permanent and lead to _________, requiring _________ of the affected region.

Everyday Connection

Controlled Hypothermia

· The body continuously engages in coordinated _________ to maintain a stable _________.

· In some cases, overriding this system can be useful or even _________.

· _________ is the clinical term for an abnormally low _________ (_________ = “below” or “under”).

· _________ is clinically induced _________ used to reduce the _________ of an organ or the entire body.

· _________ is used during _________ to decrease the _________ of the _________, _________, and other _________, reducing the risk of damage.

· When _________ is used clinically, the patient is given medication to prevent _________.

· The body is cooled to _________ (79–89°F).

· The _________ is stopped, and an external _________ maintains _________ to the patient's body.

· The _________ is cooled further and maintained at a temperature below _________ (60°F) during the surgery.

· This very cold _________ helps the _________ tolerate its lack of _________ during the surgery.

· Some _________ physicians use _________ to reduce damage to the _________ in patients who have suffered _________.

· In the _________, the physician induces _________ and lowers the patient’s _________ to approximately _________.

· This condition, maintained for _________, slows the patient’s _________.

· Because the patient’s _________ require less _________ to function, the _________ is reduced.

Narrow Range of Atmospheric Pressure

· _________ is a force exerted by a substance in contact with another substance.

· _________ is pressure exerted by the mixture of gases (primarily _________ and _________) in the Earth’s _________.

· Although you may not perceive it, _________ is constantly pressing down on your _________.

· This pressure keeps _________ within your body, such as the gaseous _________ in body _________, dissolved.

· If you were suddenly ejected from a _________ above Earth’s _________, you would go from normal pressure to one of very low _________.

· The pressure of the _________ gas in your _________ would be much higher than the pressure of nitrogen in the space surrounding your _________.

· As a result, the _________ gas in your _________ would expand, forming _________ that could block _________ and even cause _________ to break apart.

· _________ does more than keep _________ dissolved.

· Your ability to _________—to take in _________ and release _________—depends on precise _________.

· _________ occurs because the atmosphere at high _________ exerts less _________, reducing the exchange of these _________ and causing _________, _________, _________, _________, and _________.

· _________ carry _________ to reduce the effects of both low _________ and low _________ at higher _________ (Figure 1.9).

FIGURE 1.9 Harsh Conditions

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES

Decompression Sickness

· _________ (_________) is a condition where _________ dissolved in the _________ or other body _________ are no longer dissolved after a reduction in _________.

· This condition affects _________ who surface from a deep dive too quickly, and it can affect _________ flying at high _________ in planes with unpressurized _________.

· Divers often call this condition “_________,” referring to _________ that is a symptom of _________.

· In all cases, _________ is caused by a reduction in _________.

· At high _________, _________ is much less than on Earth’s surface because pressure is produced by the weight of the _________ above the body pressing down on the _________.

· The great pressures on _________ in deep water are also caused by the weight of a _________ pressing down on the body.

· For _________, _________ occurs at normal _________ (at sea level), but it is caused by the rapid decrease in _________ as divers rise from the high pressure conditions of deep water to the lower pressure at _________.

· Not surprisingly, diving in deep _________, where _________ at the surface is lower than at _________, is more likely to result in _________ than diving in water at _________.

· In _________, _________ dissolved in the _________ (primarily _________) come rapidly out of solution, forming _________ in the blood and other _________.

· This happens because when the pressure of a gas over a liquid is decreased, the amount of _________ that can remain dissolved in the liquid is also decreased.

· It is _________ that keeps your normal _________ dissolved in the _________.

· When _________ is reduced, less _________ remains dissolved.

· You have seen this effect when you open a _________.

· Removing the _________ of the bottle reduces the _________ of the gas over the liquid.

· This causes _________ as dissolved _________ (in this case, _________) come out of solution in the liquid.

· The most common symptoms of _________ are _________ in the _________, with _________ and disturbances of _________ occurring in 10% to 15% of cases.

· Left untreated, very severe _________ can result in _________.

· Immediate treatment is with _________.

· The affected person is moved into a _________.

· A _________ is a reinforced, closed chamber pressurized to greater than _________.

· It treats _________ by repressurizing the body so that pressure can be removed more gradually.

· Because the _________ introduces _________ to the body at high _________, it increases the concentration of _________ in the _________.

· This replaces some of the _________ in the blood with _________, which is easier to tolerate out of _________.

· The _________ of _________ is important to human _________.

· For example, _________, the pressure exerted by _________ as it flows within _________, must be great enough to enable _________ to reach all _________.

· It must also be low enough to ensure that the delicate _________ can withstand the friction and force of the pulsating flow of pressurized _________.

1.5 Homeostasis

· Maintaining _________ requires the body to continuously monitor its _________.

· From _________ to _________ to levels of certain _________, each physiological condition has a particular _________.

· A _________ is the physiological value around which the normal range fluctuates.

· A _________ is the restricted set of values that is optimally _________ and _________.

· For example, the _________ for normal human _________ is approximately _________ (98.6°F).

· Physiological parameters, such as _________ and _________, fluctuate within a _________ a few degrees above and below the _________.

· _________ in the _________ and other parts of the body monitor and react to deviations from _________ using _________.

· _________ is a mechanism that reverses a deviation from the _________.

· Therefore, _________ maintains body parameters within their _________.

· The maintenance of _________ by _________ occurs throughout the body at all times, and understanding _________ is fundamental to understanding _________.

Negative Feedback

· A _________ has three basic components (Figure 1.10a).

· A _________, also called a _________, is a component that monitors a physiological _________.

· This value is reported to the _________.

· The _________ compares the _________ to the _________.

· If the value deviates too much from the _________, the _________ activates an _________.

· An _________ causes a change to reverse the situation and return the _________ to the _________.

FIGURE 1.10 Negative Feedback System

· A _________ must drive a physiological _________ beyond its normal range (beyond _________) to set the system in motion.

· This _________ is “heard” by a specific _________.

· For example, in the control of _________, specific _________ in the _________ detect excess _________ in the bloodstream.

· These _________ respond by releasing the hormone _________ into the bloodstream.

· The _________ signals _________, _________ (_________), and _________ to take up the excess _________, removing it from the bloodstream.

· As _________ in the bloodstream drops, the decrease is detected by _________, and _________ release stops.

· This prevents blood sugar levels from continuing to drop below the _________.

· _________ have a similar _________ feedback system that promotes either _________ or _________ (Figure 1.10b).

· When the brain’s _________ receives data from the _________ indicating the body’s _________ exceeds its normal range, it stimulates a cluster of brain cells called the “_________.”

· This _________ has three major _________.

· _________ in the _________ begin to _________, allowing more _________ from the body _________ to flow to the surface of the _________.

· This allows the _________ to radiate into the _________.

· As _________ to the _________ increases, _________ are activated to increase their _________.

· As the _________ evaporates from the _________ surface into the surrounding _________, it takes _________ with it.

· The depth of _________ increases, and a person may breathe through an _________ instead of through the _________.

· This further increases _________ from the _________.

· In contrast, activation of the brain’s _________ by exposure to _________ reduces _________ to the _________, and blood returning from the _________ is diverted into deep _________.

· This arrangement traps _________ closer to the body _________ and restricts _________.

· If _________ is severe, the brain triggers random signals to _________, causing them to contract and produce _________.

· The muscle contractions of _________ release _________ while using up _________.

· The brain triggers the _________ in the _________ to release _________, which increases _________ and _________ in cells throughout the body.

· The brain also signals the _________ to release _________ (_________), a hormone that causes the breakdown of _________ into _________, an energy source.

· The breakdown of _________ into _________ also results in increased _________ and _________.

Positive Feedback

· _________ intensifies a change in the body’s physiological condition rather than reversing it.

· A deviation from the _________ results in more _________, and the system moves farther away from the _________.

· _________ in the body is normal only when there is a definite _________.

· _________ and the body’s response to _________ are two examples of _________ that are normal but are activated only when needed.

· _________ at full term is an example of a situation where the maintenance of the existing body state is not desired.

· Enormous changes in a person’s _________ are required to expel the _________ at the end of _________.

· The events of _________, once begun, must progress rapidly to a _________ or the life of the person giving birth and the _________ are at risk.

· The extreme _________ of labor and _________ results from a _________ (Figure 1.11).

FIGURE 1.11 Positive Feedback Loop

· The first _________ of _________ (the _________) push the _________ toward the _________ (the lowest part of the _________).

· The _________ contains stretch-sensitive _________ that monitor the degree of _________ (the _________).

· These _________ send messages to the _________, which causes the _________ to release the hormone _________ into the _________.

· _________ causes stronger _________ of the smooth muscles in the _________ (the _________), pushing the _________ further down the birth _________.

· This causes even greater _________ of the _________.

· The cycle of _________, _________ release, and increasingly more forceful _________ stops only when the _________ is born.

· At this point, the _________ of the _________ halts, stopping the release of _________.

· A second example of _________ centers on reversing extreme _________ to the body.

· Following a penetrating _________, the most immediate threat is excessive _________.

· Less _________ circulating means reduced _________ and reduced _________ (penetration of _________) to the _________ and other vital _________.

· If _________ is severely reduced, vital _________ will shut down, and the person will _________.

· The body responds by releasing substances in the injured _________ that begin the process of _________.

· As each step of _________ occurs, it stimulates the release of more _________.

· This accelerates the process of _________ and sealing off the _________.

· _________ is contained in a local area based on the tightly controlled availability of _________.

· This is an adaptive, _________ cascade of events.

1.6 Anatomical Terminology

· _________ and _________ use terminology that can be bewildering to the uninitiated.

· However, this language aims to increase _________ and reduce _________.

· For example, is a _________ “above the wrist” located on the _________ two or three inches away from the _________?

· Or is it at the _________ of the hand? Is it on the _________ or the _________?

· By using precise _________, we eliminate _________.

· _________ derive from ancient _________ and _________ words.

· Because these languages are no longer used in everyday conversation, the meaning of their words does not _________.

· _________ are made up of _________, _________, and _________.

· The _________ of a term often refers to an _________, _________, or _________, while the _________ or _________ often describes the root.

· For example, in the disorder _________, the _________ “_________” means “high” or “over,” and the root word “_________” refers to _________.

· So, the word “_________” refers to abnormally high _________.

Anatomical Position

· To further increase _________, _________ standardize the way they view the _________.

· Just as _________ are normally oriented with _________ at the top, the standard body "map," or _________, is the body standing upright, with the _________ at shoulder width and parallel, _________ forward.

· The _________ are held out to each side, and the _________ of the hands face forward, as illustrated in Figure 1.12.

· Using this standard _________ reduces _________.

· It does not matter how the body being described is oriented; the terms are used as if it is in _________.

· For example, a _________ in the “_________ (front) _________ (wrist) region” would be present on the _________ of the wrist.

· The term “_________” would be used even if the _________ were palm down on a table.

FIGURE 1.12 Regions of the Human Body

· A body that is lying down is described as either _________ or _________.

· _________ describes a _________ orientation, and _________ describes a _________ orientation.

· These terms are sometimes used in describing the _________ of the body during specific _________ or _________.

Regional Terms

· The human body’s numerous _________ have specific terms to help increase _________ (see Figure 1.12).

· The term “_________” or “_________” is reserved for the “_________,” and “_________” or “_________” is used rather than “_________.”

· Similarly, “_________” or “_________” is correct, and “_________” or “_________” is reserved for the portion of the lower limb between the _________ and the _________.

· You will be able to describe the _________ using the terms from the _________.

Directional Terms

· Certain _________ appear throughout this and any other _________ (Figure 1.13).

· These terms are essential for describing the _________ of different _________.

· For instance, an _________ might describe one band of tissue as “_________” another, or a _________ might describe a _________ as “_________” a deeper body structure.

· Commit these terms to _________ to avoid _________ when you are studying or describing the locations of particular _________.

· _________ (or _________) describes the _________ or direction toward the front of the _________.

· The _________ are _________ to the _________.

· _________ (or _________) describes the _________ or direction toward the back of the _________.

· The _________ is _________ to the _________.

· _________ (or _________) describes a position above or higher than another part of the _________.

· The _________ are _________ to the _________.

· _________ (or _________) describes a position below or lower than another part of the _________; near or toward the _________ (in humans, the _________, or lowest part of the _________).

· The _________ is _________ to the _________.

· _________ describes the _________ or direction toward the side of the _________.

· The _________ (_________) is _________ to the _________.

· _________ describes the middle or direction toward the middle of the _________.

· The _________ is the _________ toe.

· _________ describes a position in a _________ that is nearer to the point of attachment or the _________ of the _________.

· The _________ is _________ to the _________.

· _________ describes a position in a _________ that is farther from the point of attachment or the _________ of the _________.

· The _________ is _________ to the _________.

· _________ describes a position closer to the surface of the _________.

· The _________ is _________ to the _________.

· _________ describes a position farther from the surface of the _________.

· The _________ is _________ to the _________.

FIGURE 1.13 Directional Terms Applied to the Human Body

Body Planes

· A _________ is a two-dimensional surface of a three-dimensional _________ that has been cut.

· Modern _________ devices enable clinicians to obtain “virtual _________” of living _________.

· We call these _________.

· Body _________ and _________ can be correctly interpreted only if the viewer understands the _________ along which the section was made.

· A _________ is an imaginary two-dimensional surface that passes through the _________.

· There are three _________ commonly referred to in _________ and _________, as illustrated in Figure 1.14.

· The _________ divides the _________ or an _________ vertically into _________ and _________ sides.

· If this vertical _________ runs directly down the middle of the _________, it is called the _________ or _________ plane.

· If it divides the _________ into unequal _________ and _________ sides, it is called a _________ plane or less commonly a _________.

· The _________ divides the _________ or an _________ into an _________ (front) portion and a _________ (rear) portion.

· The _________ is often referred to as a _________.

· (“_________” is _________ for “_________.”)

· The _________ divides the _________ or _________ horizontally into _________ and _________ portions.

FIGURE 1.14 Planes of the Body

Body Cavities and Serous Membranes

· The _________ maintains its internal organization by means of _________, _________, and other structures that separate _________.

· The _________ (_________) cavity and the _________ (_________) cavity are the largest body _________ (Figure 1.15).

· These _________ contain and protect delicate internal _________.

· The _________ allows for significant changes in the size and shape of the _________ as they perform their _________.

· The _________, _________, _________, and _________, for example, can expand and contract without distorting other _________ or disrupting the activity of nearby _________.

FIGURE 1.15 Dorsal and Ventral Body Cavities

Subdivisions of the Posterior (Dorsal) and Anterior (Ventral) Cavities

· The _________ (_________) and _________ (_________) cavities are each subdivided into smaller _________.

· In the _________ (_________) cavity, the _________ houses the _________, and the _________ (or _________) encloses the _________.

· Just as the _________ and _________ make up a continuous, uninterrupted _________, the _________ and _________ that house them are also _________.

· The _________ and _________ are protected by the bones of the _________ and _________ and by _________, a colorless fluid produced by the _________, which cushions the _________ and _________ within the _________ (_________) cavity.

· The _________ (_________) cavity has two main subdivisions: the _________ and the _________ (see Figure 1.15).

· The _________ is the more _________ subdivision of the _________, and it is enclosed by the _________.

· The _________ contains the _________ and the _________, which is located in the _________.

· The _________ forms the floor of the _________ and separates it from the more inferior _________.

· The _________ is the _________ in the _________.

· Although no _________ physically divides the _________, it is useful to distinguish between the _________, which houses the _________, and the _________, which houses the _________.

Abdominal Regions and Quadrants

· To promote clear _________, health care providers typically divide up the _________ into either _________ or _________ (Figure 1.16).

· This is done to describe the location of a patient’s _________ or a _________.

FIGURE 1.16 Regions and Quadrants of the Peritoneal Cavity

· The more detailed _________ subdivides the _________ with one _________ immediately inferior to the _________ and one immediately superior to the _________, and two _________ dropped from the midpoint of each _________ (_________).

· There are _________.

· The simpler _________, more commonly used in _________, subdivides the _________ with one _________ and one _________ that intersect at the patient’s _________ (_________).

Membranes of the Anterior (Ventral) Body Cavity

· A _________ (also referred to a _________) is one of the thin membranes that cover the _________ and _________ in the _________ and _________.

· The _________ of the membranes line the _________ of the _________ (parietal refers to a _________).

· The _________ of the membrane covers the _________ (_________).

· Between the _________ and _________ is a very thin, fluid-filled _________, or _________ (Figure 1.17).

FIGURE 1.17 Serous Membrane

· There are three _________ and their associated _________.

· The _________ is the _________ that encloses the _________; the _________ surrounds the _________.

· The _________ is the _________ that encloses the _________; the _________ surrounds the _________.

· The _________ is the _________ that encloses the _________; the _________ surrounds several _________ in the _________.

· The _________ form _________, or _________, that cushion and reduce _________ on internal _________ when they move, such as when the _________ inflate or the _________ beats.

· Both the _________ and _________ secrete the thin, slippery _________ located within the _________.

· The _________ reduces _________ between the _________ and the _________.

· Likewise, the _________ reduces _________ between the _________ and the wall of the _________.

· The _________ reduces _________ between the _________ and _________ and the _________.

· Therefore, _________ provide additional protection to the _________ they enclose by reducing _________ that could lead to _________ of the _________.

1.7 Medical Imaging

· For thousands of years, fear of the _________ and _________ limited the ability of _________ and _________ to study the _________ of the _________.

· An inability to control _________, _________, and _________ made _________ infrequent.

· Those that were performed—such as _________, _________, _________ and _________, _________, and _________—did not greatly advance knowledge about internal _________.

· Theories about the _________ of the body and _________ were largely based on _________ and _________.

· During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the detailed _________ of Italian artist and _________ _________ and Flemish _________ _________ were published, and interest in _________ began to increase.

· _________ began to teach _________ using _________; although some resorted to _________ to obtain _________.

· _________ were eventually passed that enabled students to dissect the _________ of _________ and those who donated their bodies for _________.

· Still, it was not until the late _________ that _________ discovered _________ to look inside the _________.

X-Rays

· _________ _________ (1845–1923) was experimenting with _________ when he discovered a mysterious and invisible “_________” that would pass through his flesh but leave an outline of his _________ on a screen coated with a _________.

· In _________, Röntgen made the first durable record of the internal parts of a _________: an “_________” image (as it came to be called) of his _________.

· _________ around the world quickly began their own experiments with _________, and by _________, _________ were widely used to detect a variety of _________ and _________.

· In _________, _________ was awarded the first _________ for _________ for his work in this _________.

· The _________ is a form of high-energy _________ with a _________ capable of penetrating solid and ionizing _________.

· As they are used in _________, _________ are emitted from an _________ and directed toward a specially treated _________ placed behind the _________.

· The beam of _________ results in _________ of the _________.

· _________ are slightly impeded by _________, which show up as _________ on the _________, whereas _________, such as _________, largely block the rays, producing a light-toned “_________.”

· Thus, _________ are best used to visualize hard _________ such as _________ and _________ (Figure 1.18).

· Like many forms of high-energy _________, however, _________ are capable of damaging _________ and initiating changes that can lead to _________.

· This danger of excessive exposure to _________ was not fully appreciated for many years after their _________.

FIGURE 1.18 X-Ray of a Hand

· _________ and _________ of _________ techniques have continued throughout the _________ and _________.

· Although often supplanted by more sophisticated _________, the _________ remains a “_________” in _________, especially for viewing _________ and for _________.

· The disadvantage of _________ to the _________ and the _________ is now attenuated by proper _________ and by limiting _________.

Modern Medical Imaging

· _________ can depict a _________ of a _________, and only from a single _________.

· In contrast, more recent _________ produce _________ that is integrated and analyzed by _________ to produce _________ or images that reveal aspects of _________.

Computed Tomography

· _________ refers to _________ by _________.

· _________ (_________) is a _________ that uses _________ to analyze several _________ to reveal minute details about structures in the _________ (Figure 1.19a).

· The technique was invented in the _________ and is based on the principle that, as _________ pass through the _________, they are absorbed or reflected at different _________.

· In the technique, a _________ lies on a motorized _________ while a _________ (_________) scanner rotates _________ around the _________, taking _________.

· A _________ combines these _________ into a _________ of the scanned area, or “_________.”

FIGURE 1.19 Medical Imaging Techniques

· Since _________, the development of more powerful _________ and more sophisticated _________ has made _________ routine for many types of _________.

· It is especially useful for _________, such as of the _________ and the _________ and _________.

· Its level of _________ is so precise that it can allow _________ to measure the _________ of a _________ down to a _________.

· The main disadvantage of _________ is that it exposes _________ to a dose of _________ many times higher than that of _________.

· In fact, _________ who undergo _________ are at increased risk of developing _________, as are _________ who have multiple _________.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

· _________ (_________) is a _________ medical imaging technique based on a phenomenon of _________ discovered in the _________, in which matter exposed to _________ and _________ was found to emit _________.

· In _________, a physician and researcher named _________ noticed that _________ (_________) tissue gave off different _________ than normal _________.

· He applied for a _________ for the first _________, which was in use _________ by the early _________.

· The early _________ were _________, but advances in _________ and _________ led to their advancement over any other technique for _________, especially to discover _________.

· _________ also has the major advantage of not exposing _________ to _________.

· _________ of _________ include their much higher _________ and patient _________ with the procedure.

· The _________ subjects the _________ to powerful _________, requiring the scan room to be _________.

· The _________ must be enclosed in a _________ for the duration of the _________ (see Figure 1.19b), sometimes as long as _________, which can be uncomfortable and impractical for _________.

· The device is also so _________ that, even with _________, patients can become _________ or even _________.

· These problems have been overcome somewhat with the development of _________, which does not require the _________ to be entirely enclosed in the _________.

· _________ with _________ (internal sutures, some _________, and so on) cannot undergo _________ because it can _________ these _________.

· _________ (_________), which detect the concentration of _________ in certain parts of the _________, are increasingly used to study _________ during various _________.

· This has helped _________ learn more about the _________ of different _________ and more about _________ and _________.

Positron Emission Tomography

· _________ (_________) is a _________ involving the use of _________, substances that emit _________ that is _________ and therefore relatively _________ to administer to the _________.

· Although the first _________ was introduced in _________, it took 15 more years before _________ were combined with the technique and revolutionized its _________.

· The main _________ of _________ (see Figure 1.19c) is that it can illustrate _________—including _________ and _________—of the _________ or organs being targeted, whereas _________ and _________ scans can only show _________.

· _________ is widely used to diagnose a multitude of conditions, such as _________, the spread of _________, certain forms of _________, _________, _________, and _________.

Ultrasonography

· _________ is an _________ that uses the transmission of high-frequency _________ into the _________ to generate an _________ that is converted by a _________ into a real-time image of _________ and _________ (see Figure 1.19d).

· _________ is the least _________ of all _________, and it is therefore used more freely in sensitive situations such as _________.

· The technology was first developed in the _________ and _________.

· _________ is used to study _________, _________ in the _________ or _________, certain conditions such as _________, and _________ and _________.

· The main _________ of _________ are that the _________ is heavily _________ and that it is unable to penetrate _________ and _________.

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Fill in the Blank Questions

_________: The branch of science concerned with the bodily structure of humans, animals, and other living organisms, typically revealed by dissection or imaging techniques.

_________: The scientific study of the functions and mechanisms in a living system, explaining how organs, tissues, and cells carry out chemical and physical processes. _________: Careers focused on maintaining or improving health through diagnosis, treatment, prevention, and care—such as nursing, medicine, physical therapy, or radiology.

_________: Disorders caused by abnormalities in an individual's DNA, either inherited from parents or resulting from mutations (e.g., cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia).

_________: Illnesses caused by pathogens like bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites, which can be spread from person to person or through the environment (e.g., influenza, tuberculosis). _________

A course in _________ and _________ may feel like just a requirement.

But the _________ you gain can be helpful in many parts of life.

_________ the human body is important for all _________.

It also helps you make _________ in your daily life.

If you know your _________, you can recognize early signs of _________.

You might seek medical _________ faster due to this _________.

This _________ can help you interpret news about _________ or _________.

It also helps you understand _________ and _________.

You can better understand _________ or _________ affecting you or others.

Everyone experiences a _________ at some point in life.

Your _________ can help you support friends or family during health issues.

You’ll be a more informed _________, _________, or _________.

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Definitions of Scientific Terms Anatomy: The branch of science concerned with the bodily structure of humans, animals, and other living organisms, typically revealed by dissection or imaging techniques. Physiology: The scientific study of the functions and mechanisms in a living system, explaining how organs, tissues, and cells carry out chemical and physical processes. Health professions: Careers focused on maintaining or improving health through diagnosis, treatment, prevention, and care—such as nursing, medicine, physical therapy, or radiology. Genetic diseases: Disorders caused by abnormalities in an individual's DNA, either inherited from parents or resulting from mutations (e.g., cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia). Infectious diseases: Illnesses caused by pathogens like bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites, which can be spread from person to person or through the environment (e.g., influenza, tuberculosis). Rewritten Paragraph (Bulleted List with Bolded Key Terms) A course in anatomy and physiology may feel like just a requirement. But the knowledge you gain can be helpful in many parts of life. Understanding the human body is important for all health professions. It also helps you make healthful choices in your daily life. If you know your body, you can recognize early signs of illness. You might seek medical treatment faster due to this awareness. This knowledge can help you interpret news about nutrition or medications. It also helps you understand medical devices and procedures. You can better understand genetic or infectious diseases affecting you or others. Everyone experiences a health problem at some point in life. Your understanding can help you support friends or family during health issues. You’ll be a more informed parent, spouse, or caregiver.

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